Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
SpringerLink
Log in

Promoting Smart Water Systems in Developing Countries Through Innovation Partnerships: Evidence from VIA Water-Supported Projects in Africa

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
ICT for Smart Water Systems: Measurements and Data Science

Part of the book series: The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry ((HEC,volume 102))

Abstract

Over the past decades, the potential of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) to improve water management has been demonstrated. However, the development and/or adoption of ICT-focused water innovations in developing countries does not seem to occur at the expected pace, which calls for suitable innovation approaches. This chapter investigates how these innovations can be fostered through partnerships. The explorative analysis of 24 ICT-focused water innovation partnerships (ICT-WIPs) implemented in Africa leads to two important findings. First, it appears that these partnerships enable effective exchange of complementary tangible and intangible resources and co-creation of ICT-focused water solutions in a cost-effective and timely manner but also pose collaboration challenges due to the heterogeneity of innovation partners. Second, the analysis demonstrates the importance of concurrent use of relational (trust-based) and structural (legally binding control-based) partnership governance mechanisms to mitigate these challenges, notably by reducing opportunistic behaviours and increasing clarity of partners’ commitments and rights. We conclude that well-designed and -implemented ICT-WIPs can contribute to enhancing the capabilities of developing countries to implement the smart water systems agenda.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 259.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 329.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    NRW from water distribution systems worldwide is estimated at 48 billion cubic meters per year of which 55% occurs in developing countries [18]. An important proportion of NRW (physical losses) is generally attributed to the ageing and subsequent deterioration of water infrastructure, because of poor operation and maintenance activities as well as slow the replacement process.

  2. 2.

    Power distance is defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organisations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally (p. 28). Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after himself or herself and his or her immediate family. Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which people from birth onward are integrated into strong and cohesive in-groups, which throughout people’s lifetimes continue to protect them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty (p. 51). Masculinity pertains to societies in which social gender roles are clearly distinct (i.e. men are supposed to be assertive, tough and focused on material success, whereas women are supposed to be more modest, tender and concerned with the quality of life. Femininity pertains to societies in which social gender roles overlap (i.e. both men and women are supposed to be modest, tender and concerned with the quality of life) (pp. 82–83). Uncertainty avoidance is defined as the extent to which the members of a culture feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations (p. 167).

  3. 3.

    The cost of a station is evaluated at only $500: this cheap price is achieved notably by leveraging on already existing low-cost sensors (as found in objects ranging from washing machines to cars and smart phones) and using them as weather or water sensors. For example, the simple piezo buzzer (costing $1), which is used in fire alarms, is used to measure rainfall intensity [68].

  4. 4.

    In this chapter, we distinguish between “end-users” (or simply users) and “customers” of an innovation. The former term refers to a person or entity that uses an innovation (e.g. product), and the latter refers to a person or entity that purchases it. Note that in some cases, the end-user and customer of an innovation are the same (e.g. a water utility purchasing low-cost sensors and using them to detect leakages in its distribution network), while they are different in other cases (e.g. an NGO purchasing a mobile application for a selected number of citizens who then use the application to share data and information about water issues in their community).

  5. 5.

    Small and medium enterprises (SME) – the European Union defines these as enterprises employing fewer than 250 persons and have either an annual turnover not exceeding EUR 50 million or an annual balance sheet total not exceeding EUR 43 million.

  6. 6.

    The potential customers of this application are of two categories: (1) vacuum tankers and small-scale service providers providing services to low income consumers, and (2) municipalities, utilities, regulators and financing institutions who need faecal sludge management-related data to improve regulation of services.

  7. 7.

    TAHMO (Trans-African Hydro-Meteorological Observatory)

  8. 8.

    FLOW is an open-source mapping software used for data collection and monitoring of the functionality of water access points.

  9. 9.

    On these two dimensions, the Netherlands has the scores (out of 100) of 38 and 53, respectively.

References

  1. United Nations General Assembly (2010) The human right to water and sanitation. Resolution 64/292

    Google Scholar 

  2. ADB (Asian Development Bank) (2013) Asian Development Outlook: measuring water security in Asia and the Pacific. Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong

    Google Scholar 

  3. UNESCO (2012) Managing water under uncertainty and risk, United Nations World Water Development. Report 4, vol 2 (Knowledge Base). UNESCO, Paris

    Google Scholar 

  4. World Economic Forum (2012) Global risks 2012. World Economic Forum, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  5. UN-Water & FAO (2007) Coping with water scarcity. Challenge of the twenty-first century. http://www.fao.org/nr/water/docs/escarcity.pdf

  6. United Nations General Assembly (2015) Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for sustainable development. United Nations, New York

    Google Scholar 

  7. ITU (2010) ICT as an enabler for smart water management. ITU-T Technology. Watch Report October 2010

    Google Scholar 

  8. Kappor T (2006) Role of information and communication technology in adaptive integrated water resource management. World Environmental and Water Resource Congress, pp 1–10. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1061/40856%28200%291

  9. Meena M, Singh K (2012) Information and communication technology for sustainable natural resource management. Retrieved from http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/45818/1/MPRA_paper_45818.pdf

  10. Ndaw MF (2015) Unlocking the potential of information communications technology to improve water and sanitation services. Water and Sanitation Programme, The World Bank

    Google Scholar 

  11. De Souza PF, Mackintosh GS, Suites C, Town C, Management E, Africa S (2014) Lessons learnt from the implementation of ICT applications to support the water sector, pp 1–16. Retrieved from http://greenseesaw.files.wordpress.com/2014/05/wisa2014-081-schaub-jones-et-al-b.pdf

  12. Wehn U, Montalvo C (2018) Exploring the dynamics of water innovation: foundations for water innovation studies. J Clean Prod 171(S):1–19

    Google Scholar 

  13. Tutusaus M, Schwartz K, Smit S (2017) The ambiguity of innovation drivers: the adoption of information and communication technologies by public water utilities. J Clean Prod 171:79–85

    Google Scholar 

  14. Hope R, Foster T, Money A, Rouse M, Money N, Thomas M (2011) Smart water systems. Project report to UK DFID, April 2011. Oxford University, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  15. Nagel W, Wouters T, van der Weerd K (2018) VIA Water: a programme to support co-created water innovations in African cities. J Clean Prod 171:140–143

    Google Scholar 

  16. Ntelekos AA, Oppenheimer M, Smith JA, Miller AJ (2010) Urbanization, climate change and flood policy in the United States. Clim Change 103:597

    Google Scholar 

  17. Sun G, McNulty SG, Myers JAM, Cohen EC (2008) Impacts of climate change, population growth, land use change, and groundwater availability on water supply and demand across the conterminous U.S. AWRA Watershed Update 6(2):1

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Kindom B, Liemberger R, Marin P (2006) The challenge of reducing non-revenue water in developing countries. The World Bank, Washington

    Google Scholar 

  19. Mauree V (2010) ICTs as an enabler for smart water management. ITU-Technology Watch Report

    Google Scholar 

  20. Vossen RW (1998) Combining small and large firm advantages in innovation: theory and practice, Graduate School/Research Institute Systems, Organisation and, Groningen

    Google Scholar 

  21. Hagedoorn J, Duysters G (2002) The effect of mergers and acquisitions on the technological performance of companies in a high-tech environment. Tech Anal Strat Manag 14(1):68–85

    Google Scholar 

  22. Hagedoon J, Schakenraad J (1994) The effect of strategic technology alliances on company performance. Strateg Manag J 15:291–309

    Google Scholar 

  23. DeMan AP, Duysters G (2005) Collaboration and innovation: a review of the effects of mergers, acquisitions and alliances on innovation. Technovation 25:1377–1387

    Google Scholar 

  24. Chesbrough H (2003) Open innovation: the new imperative for creating and profiting from technology. Harvard Business School, Boston

    Google Scholar 

  25. De Man A-P, Duysters G (2005) Collaboration and innovation: a review of the effects of mergers, acquisitions and alliances on innovation. Technovation 25(12):1377–1387

    Google Scholar 

  26. Chesbrough HW, Vanhaverbeke W, West J (eds) (2006) Open innovation: researching a new paradigm. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  27. Barney JB (1991) Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. J Manag 17:99–120

    Google Scholar 

  28. Grant RM (1996) Toward a knowledge-based theory of the firm. Strateg Manag J 17:109–122

    Google Scholar 

  29. Harrison JS, Hitt MA, Hoskisson RE, Ireland RD (2001a) Resource complementarity in business combinations: extending the logic to organizational alliances. J Manag 27:679–690

    Google Scholar 

  30. Harrison JS, Hitt MA, Hoskisson RE, Ireland RD (2001b) Resource complementarity in business combinations: extending the logic to organizational alliances. J Manag 27(6):679–690

    Google Scholar 

  31. Nooteboom B (2000) Learning by interaction: absorptive capacity, cognitive distance and governance. J Manag Gov 4(1–2):69–92

    Google Scholar 

  32. Nonaka I, von Krogh G (2009) Perspective-tacit knowledge and knowledge conversion: Controversy and advancement in organizational knowledge creation theory. Org Sci 20(3):635–652

    Google Scholar 

  33. Eisenhardt KM, Schoonhoven CB (1996) Resource-based view of strategic alliance formation: strategic and social effects in entrepreneurial firms. Organ Sci 7:136–150

    Google Scholar 

  34. Freeman C (2002) Continental, national and sub-national innovation systems complementarity and economic growth. Res Policy 31:191–211

    Google Scholar 

  35. Lundvall B-A (ed) (1992) National systems of innovation. Anthem Press, London

    Google Scholar 

  36. Nelson RR (ed) (1993) National innovation systems. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  37. Godin B (2007) National Innovation System: The system’s approach in historical perspective. Working Paper No. 36, Project on the History and Sociology of STI Statistics (Montreal, Canada)

    Google Scholar 

  38. Edquist C (ed) (1997) Systems of innovation: technologies, institutions, and organizations. Pinter, London

    Google Scholar 

  39. Enzing C (2009) Product innovation in the Dutch food and beverage industry: a study on the impact of the innovation process, strategy and network on the product’s short-and long-term market performance PhD thesis, Wageningen University

    Google Scholar 

  40. Deeds DL, Hill CW (1999) An examination of opportunistic action within research alliances: Evidence from the biotechnology industry. J Bus Ventur 14:141–163

    Google Scholar 

  41. Farr CM, Fischer WA (1992) Managing international high technology cooperative projects. R&D Manag 22(1):55–68

    Google Scholar 

  42. Hamel G (1991) Competition for competence and inter-partner learning within international strategic alliances. Strateg Manag J 12(S1):83–103

    Google Scholar 

  43. Faems D, Janssens M, Madhok A, Van Looy B (2008) Toward an integrative perspective on alliance governance: connecting contract design, trust dynamics and contract application. Acad Manage J 51:1053–1078

    Google Scholar 

  44. Tepic M, Omta OS, Trienekens JH, Fortuin FT (2011) The role of structural and relational governance in creating stable innovation networks: insights from sustainability-oriented Dutch innovation networks. J Chain Netw Sci 11(3):197–211

    Google Scholar 

  45. Williamson OE (1989) Transaction cost economics. In: Schmalensee R, Willig R (eds) Handbook of industrial organization. North-Holland, New York

    Google Scholar 

  46. Poppo L, Zenger T (2002) Do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements? Strateg Manag J 23:707–725

    Google Scholar 

  47. Vlaar PWL, Bosch FAJ, Van den Volberda HW (2007) On evolution of trust, distrust and formal coordination and control in inter-organisational relationships: toward an integrative framework. Group Org Manag 32:407–429

    Google Scholar 

  48. Garbade PJP, Omta SWF, Fortuin FTJM (2015) The interplay of structural and relational governance in innovation alliances. J Chain Netw Sci 16(2):117–134

    Google Scholar 

  49. Nooteboom B (1999) Inter-firm alliances: analysis and design. Routledge, London

    Google Scholar 

  50. Uzzi B (1997) Social structure and competition in interfirm networks: the paradox of embeddedness. Adm Sci Q 42(1):35–67

    Google Scholar 

  51. Volberda HW (1998) Building the flexible firm: how to remain competitive. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  52. Dyer JH, Singh H (1998) The relational view: cooperative strategy and sources of inter-organizational competitive advantage. Acad Manage Rev 23(4):660–679

    Google Scholar 

  53. Gulati R (1995) Does familiarity breed trust? The implications of repeated ties for contractual choice in alliances. Acad Manage J 38:85–112

    Google Scholar 

  54. Larson A (1992) Network dyads in entrepreneurial settings: a study of the governance of exchange relationships. Adm Sci Q 37:76–104

    Google Scholar 

  55. Gil N (2009) Developing cooperative project client-supplier relationships: how much to expect from relational contracts? Calif Manage Rev 51(2):144–169

    Google Scholar 

  56. Madhok A (1995) Opportunism and trust in joint venture relationships: an exploratory study and a model. Scand J Manag 11:57–74

    Google Scholar 

  57. Das TK, Teng BS (1998) Between trust and control: developing confidence in partner cooperation in alliances. Acad Manage Rev 23:491–512

    Google Scholar 

  58. Jones GR, George JM (1998) The experience and evolution of trust: implications for cooperation and teamwork. Acad Manag Rev 23:531–546

    Google Scholar 

  59. Zenger T, Lazzarini S, Poppo L (2002) Informal and formal organization in new institutional economics. Adv Strateg Manage 19:277–305

    Google Scholar 

  60. Dekker HC (2004) Control of inter-organizational relationships: evidence on appropriation concerns and coordination requirements. Acc Organ Soc 29:27–49

    Google Scholar 

  61. Hartmann A, Caerteling J (2010) Subcontractor procurement in construction: the interplay of price and trust. Supply Chain Manage 15(5):354–362

    Google Scholar 

  62. Gulati R (2007) Managing network resources: alliances, affiliations and other relational assets. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  63. Hofstede G (1997) Cultures and organizations: software of the mind. McGraw-Hill, London

    Google Scholar 

  64. Cannon JP, Doney PM, Mullen MR, Petersen KJ (2010) Building long-term orientation in buyer–supplier relationships: the moderating role of culture. J Oper Manag 28(6):506–521

    Google Scholar 

  65. Handley SM, Angst CM (2015) The impact of culture on the relationship between governance and opportunism in outsourcing relationships. Strateg Manag J 36:1412–1434

    Google Scholar 

  66. Mvulirwenande S Wehn U, Leliveld A (2017) Analysing frugal innovation incubation programmes: a case study from the water sector. Conference paper 7–8 November 2017. Centre for Frugal Innovation, Leiden, The Netherlands

    Google Scholar 

  67. GSMA Intelligence (2017) The mobile economy. Sub-Saharan Africa. www.gsmaintelligence.com

  68. Snow JT, Bonizella B, Benchwick G, Georgie G, Hoedjes J, Miller A, Usher J (2016) A new vision for weather and climate services in Africa. UNDP, New York

    Google Scholar 

  69. VIA Water (2018) Programme database. VIA Water, Delft

    Google Scholar 

  70. Winch GM, Courtney R (2007) The organization of innovation brokers: an international review. Tech Anal Strat Manag 19:747–763

    Google Scholar 

  71. ITU (2014) Partnering for solutions. ICTs in Smart Water Management. ITU, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  72. Biggs T, Shah MK (2006) African small and medium enterprises, networks, and manufacturing performance. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 3855

    Google Scholar 

  73. Tshikuku K (2001) Culture, entrepreneurship and development in Africa. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.202.3380&rep=rep1&type=pdf

  74. Nonaka I, Takeuchi H (1995) The knowledge-creating company. How Japanese companies create the dynamics of innovation. Oxford University Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  75. Batterink M (2009) Profiting from external knowledge: how firms use different knowledge acquisition strategies to improve their innovation performance. Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, 376 p

    Google Scholar 

  76. Garbade PJP, Omta O, Fortuin FTJM (2015) The interplay of structural and relational governance in innovation alliances. J Chain Netw Sci 16(2):1–18

    Google Scholar 

  77. Polanyi M (1966) The tacit dimension. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London

    Google Scholar 

  78. Grant R, Bade-Fuller CA (2004) A knowledge accessing theory of strategic alliances. J Manag Stud 41(1):61–84

    Google Scholar 

  79. Bidault F, Despres C, Butler C (1998) The drivers of cooperation between buyers and suppliers for product innovation. Res Policy 24:97–114

    Google Scholar 

  80. Tether BS (2002) Who co-operates for innovation, and why. An empirical analysis. Res Policy 31:947–967

    Google Scholar 

  81. Kotabe M, Swan KS (1995) The role of strategic alliances in high-technology new product development. Strateg Manag J 16:621–636

    Google Scholar 

  82. Shaw B (1994) User–supplier links and innovation. In: Dodgson M, Rothwell R (eds) The handbook of industrial innovation. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham

    Google Scholar 

  83. Archibugi D, Coco A (2004) International partnerships for knowledge in business academia: a comparison between Europe and the USA. Technovation 24(7):517–528

    Google Scholar 

  84. Wehn U, Collins K, Anema K, Basco-Carrera L, Lerebours A (2018) Stakeholder engagement in water governance as social learning: lessons from practice. Water Int 43(1):34–59

    Google Scholar 

  85. Faems D, Janssens M, Van Looy B (2007) The initiation and evolution of interfirm knowledge transfer in R&D relationships. Organ Stud 28(11):1699–1728

    Google Scholar 

  86. Teece DJ (1986) Profiting from technological innovation: implications for integration, collaboration, licensing and public policy. Res Policy 15:285–305

    Google Scholar 

  87. Shan W (1990) An empirical analysis of organizational strategies by entrepreneurial high-technology firms. Strateg Manag J 11:129–139

    Google Scholar 

  88. Bhatti Y (2012) What is frugal, what is innovation? Towards a theory of frugal innovation. Working Paper Said Business School, Oxford University, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  89. Radjou N, Prabhu J (2015) Frugal innovation: how to do more with less. The Economist Books, London

    Google Scholar 

  90. van Beers C, Knorringa P, Leliveld A (2014) Frugal innovation in Africa. Towards a research agenda. Position paper

    Google Scholar 

  91. Geringer JM (1991) Strategic determinants of partner selection criteria in international joint ventures. J Int Bus Stud (1st Qtr) 22(1):41–62

    Google Scholar 

  92. Contractor FJ, Lorange P (1988) Why should firms cooperate? The strategy and economics basis for cooperative ventures. In: Contractor FJ, Lorange P (eds) Cooperative strategies in international business. Lexington Books, Lexington, pp 3–28

    Google Scholar 

  93. Harrigan KR (1985) Strategies for joint ventures. Lexington Books, Lexington

    Google Scholar 

Website

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was financially supported by the Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs to generate insights on water innovation processes in Africa. We are grateful for the constructive comments by Dick Bouman, Senior Fund Manager at Aqua for All, on a draft version of this chapter.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. IHE Delft Institute for Water Education, Delft, The Netherlands

    Silas Mvulirwenande & Uta Wehn

Authors
  1. Silas Mvulirwenande
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Uta Wehn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Silas Mvulirwenande .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. National Research Council of Italy, Institute of Information Science and Technologies (CNR-ISTI), Pisa, Italy

    Andrea Scozzari

  2. Department of Civil and Structural Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK

    Steve Mounce

  3. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

    Dawei Han

  4. National Research Council of Italy, Institute for Electromagnetic Sensing of the Environment (CNR-IREA), Napoli, Italy

    Francesco Soldovieri

  5. Hydroinformatics Chair, IHE Institute for Water Education and Water Resources Section, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands

    Dimitri Solomatine

Annex: Overview of Lead Innovators, Type of Organisations They Are and Their Country of Origin

Annex: Overview of Lead Innovators, Type of Organisations They Are and Their Country of Origin

Lead innovator

Type of organisation

Country of origin

1. dloHaiti

Enterprise (company)

USA

2. Markets Merger Ltd

Enterprise (start-up)

Rwanda

3. Delft University of Technology

University

Dutch

4. SkyFox Ltd

Enterprise (start-up)

Ghana

5. Empower People

Enterprise (start-up)

Dutch

6. SnapEX Overseas

Enterprise (company)

Indian

7. Royal HaskoningDHV

Consulting firm

Dutch

8. HKV Consultants

Consulting firm

Dutch

9. Maji Milele Ltd

Enterprise (start-up)

Kenyan (owned by a Dutch entrepreneur)

10. MobiTech Water Solutions

Enterprise (start-up)

Kenyan

11. Sanergy Kenya Ltd

Enterprise (start-up)

Kenyan (USA founded)

12. IHE Delft Foundation

University

Dutch

13. Upande Ltd

Enterprise (start-up)

Kenyan (owned by a “Dutch” entrepreneur)

14. Mobile Water Management

Enterprise (start-up)

Dutch

15. Orvion B.V.

Enterprise (company)

Dutch

16. BoP Innovation Center

Consultancy

Dutch

17. Kaicedra-Consulting

Enterprise (start-up)

Mali

18. World Waternet

Utility Branch with NGO status

Dutch

19. Protos

NGO

Belgian

20. Niger River Basin Agency

Intergovernmental

Regional

21. Flood Tags

Enterprise (company)

Dutch

22. Benin Country Water Partnership

NGO

Benin

23. Water & Sanitation for the Urban Poor

Not-for-profit company

United Kingdom

24. Deltares

Research Institute

Dutch

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Mvulirwenande, S., Wehn, U. (2019). Promoting Smart Water Systems in Developing Countries Through Innovation Partnerships: Evidence from VIA Water-Supported Projects in Africa. In: Scozzari, A., Mounce, S., Han, D., Soldovieri, F., Solomatine, D. (eds) ICT for Smart Water Systems: Measurements and Data Science. The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, vol 102. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2019_422

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation